RHYTHM AS A LINK
Music and the Body Conference, Hong Kong University, Centre for the Humanities and Medicine and Department of Music, 9-11 March 2012, Hong Kong, China
RHYTHM AS A LINK BETWEEN THE ARTS
Esthir Lemi, Jan Schacher
Institute for Computer Music and Sound Technology ZHDK Switzerland
ABSTRACT
This paper focuses on the perceptual function of rhythm in musical and painting composition and how it affects memory space. Composition in all forms of art constitutes the free space of interpretation within flexible limits of space depending on our perception. Rhythm and temporal developments might be comprehended spatially in the form of imagined visual elements via the closed form and structure they represent. These elements suggest a spatial differentiation of imaginary masses and physical schemata; both aspects form part of a free mental space and affect synchronisation of external and internal phenomena
Rhythm as a representational Cycle in the form of a Circle
The circle is a representational form of rhythm; it represents the perpetual periodicy of basic schemes, revealing at the same time a stable outer structure of continuum and constant change. This continuity is obvious in painting, considering that when we look closely at a picture we follow paths which allow us to comprehend the structure of its unity. Painting, like every artistic process, begins with a concept of probable analogies. The Italian term tempo, according to the architect Aldo Rosi, reveals the spatial (atmosphere) and temporal (chronology) meaning of rhythm as ‘a principle that presides every construction’ [1]. Its’ repetition builds a multidimensional form. In such a rhythmic complex, psychological and biological stimuli are triggered where some elements change while others will stay constant [2]. As a lonely (though immersive) process, painting deals with proportional schemata and forms an expected, recognisable result as a reflection of the real world, even in its most abstract form. The abstract form of painting helps us understand and analyse the way composition functions in all artistic genres from architecture to composition, narration and choreography.
Rhythm in painting is created when attention is given to a perception and consequently the comprehension of analogies involves a rhythmic evaluation where the represented elements needed are static, albeit repeated. Since movement, developments and changes are formed through expectations, the proportional schemata of events are based on what the painter comprehends as his own perspective and that which could potentially occur. Human minds have a natural disposition for anticipation and the flexibility of such imaginative schematic formations increases the probabilities of fulfillment, since the imaginative perspective is considered adaptive. Fulfillment means synchronisation and balance between action and comprehension, in the same way the Greek term for beauty (ωραίος:(orĕos)) means ‘that which is timely’.
Musical theory constructs such schemes of analogies in time, (in other words ‘timely’, since the composer decides about the countour - the order and flow of sounds) in that the repetitive form of music can reveal the way our logical system functions. One of the differences between music and sound lies in the need to define our own sense of time in synchronisation with the reality (civilisation, cultivation, creativity) which surrounds us.
A timely repetitive function occurs also in narration. A good example of a rhythmical repetition is the spiral form in the work of Zbigniew Rybczynski [3]. The film director furthered the blue box technique by juxtaposing repetitive forms of human activities based on the type of repetition that triggers schematic expectations. His structure of repetition is neither linear nor three-dimensional; unusual or incompatible features can provide information as to which of the several schemata should be invoked in successive situations. Rybczynski’s visual forms follow the repetitive structure of music like movement within the same cycle. He frees artifacts from their gravity and introduces a musical structure tied up to their behaviour, therefore immersive [4].
A rhythmic form triggers our memory and activates non-linear paths of possible interpretations. The best example is the repetitive form of music which, in its optical abstraction, dissolves the visual formation of musical comprehension and reveals new information about the entire structure. Nevertheless, the theme presents the main characteristics of the structure, the focal point which –even in its absence– provides the motivation to take the repetitive process to its limits. This movement within the same cycle forms the periodicity of the musical meter. Justin London refers to the contrast between rhythm and meter thus:
‘Rhythm involves patterns of duration that are phenomenally present in the music, and these patterns often are referred to as rhythmic groups…By contrast, meter involves our initial perception as well as subsequent anticipation of a series of beats that we abstract from the rhythmic surface of the music as it unfolds in time. In physiological terms, rhythm involves the structure of the temporal stimulus, while meter involves our perception and cognition of such stimuli…Thus a meter is a musically particular form of entertainment or attunement, a synchronisation of some aspect of our biological activity with regularly recurring events in the environment’ (Justin London 2004, p.4).
Patterns of events in the environment (meters) are synchronised with our innate patterns of time (rhythm). A comparative perspective on musical rhythmic behaviours suggests that musical pulse and period correction are unique to humans and to the context of music and can thus be supposed to have evolved specifically for music [5].
‘Meter is one of the ways in which our senses are guided in order to form representations of musical reality. Meter provides a way of capturing the changing aspects of our musical environment as patterns of temporal invariance.
In this sense metric attendance allows listeners to synchronise their perception and cognition with musical rhythms as they occur in time. While we are entertained our attention literally “moves with sound” and this engenders our physical movements to embrace and assimilate all possible forms of activity’ (Justin London 2004, p.5).
2. The Significant Role of the Idle State
Let us consider a starting point for a rhythmical process :
An Idle State can be defined as the pre-attack point in the compositional process where action requires an anticipatory period of contemplation which can result in tension, arousal and response. This warm-up period motivates a motorised and perpetual preparation of the self. These two forms of preparation synchronise the appropriate psychological awareness and attention levels so that they are reached just in time for the onset of the event (David Huron, 2006). The element which enables anticipation is the idle state.
Composers, theatrical and film directors acknowledge the effort they put into building the idle period. In other words, they often intentionally create a state of boredom which is imposed upon the audience in order to amplify the desired effect which the action stage will have on them.
The idle period can also be a reference point to which we can return after an intense sequence of events. In western music theory premonition functions as a form of anticipation present in the dissonance of the ‘antecedent state’; premonition presents the resolutions through cadences from the ‘consequent state’ of consonance (see David Huron, 2006 p.411). Anticipation is a pre-visualisation stage, in which basic schemes are mentally selected.
‘The “tension response” triggers our interest in what follows and for what reason, which commands the response of our imagination’ (David Huron, 2006 p. 11).
As the arousal and attention levels move towards an optimum level of anticipation of the outcome, the physiological changes themselves evoke characteristic states of emotional transposition (Robert E. Thayler 1989, p.411).
‘The evoked emotional states have no particular function by themselves but are simply consequences of the physiological changes that accompany the preparation for an anticipated outcome’ (David Huron, 2006, p. 11).
The feelings that accompany the ‘tension response’ structure the perception of facts and artifacts. In order to achieve the desired level of stimulation, motions of prediction, reaction and appraisal are triggered following the artificial state of idleness. At this point we comprehend the given ‘space for action’.
Thus, attention can be viewed as a network of mental processes that select the sensations or thoughts which become the subject of contemplation. During the idle period attention expands into all forms of abstraction and boredom, and only dissolves when the desired level of tension climaxes prior to an unexpected event when interest is aroused. This is where we focus on schemata that reveal a structure, an environment, a new space into which we enter. This new environment is equivalent to our individual comprehension of the idle state. However, in contrast to the former stable situation, the imaginative space is multi-dimensional and has the complexity of a multi-dimensional environment, similar to the way we visualise sound.
The multi dimensional perspective is re-formatted via every new imaginative dimension that is displayed in syncopations. Parallel elements can be seen from different views by simultaneously perceiving an antecedent and consequent state. The imaginative space is the middle ground between realisation (fullfilment) and abstraction and functions via mentally represented patterns.
We can correlate the visual spatial selection or these mentally represented patterns, with abstract painting. This artistic genre, even in its two–dimensional form, trains the comprehension of such syncopations since the opposing elements represent values of correspondence. If the visual narration is omitted or removed, the expectation of what comes next arises in motion, since we do not care about the plot, even though we can detect rhythmical, structural, repetitive formation which reappear and configurate the unit. The more these schemata are repeated the clearer they become, in other words repetition forms expectation through anticipation.
These dynamic expectations are linked to our short term memory where antithesis, juxtapositions and contrasts are classified. These antitheses form a kind of visual thinking [6], where abstraction occurs, creating schemata in colour values and mass volumes. Visual thinking coincides with the auditive. In fact, the imaginative representations are spatial selections which are constantly proposed in every choice of activity. Imaginary space exists in order to allow us to choose how we will move, simultaneously providing the first imagined artifacts and proposed limitation of free space; These imagined schemata calm our sense of uncertainty and for this reason we save energy and tension [7].
3. Building Rhythm through Imagined Objects and Free Space
Tim Ingold’s lack of conviction in ‘the implied distinction between real and imaginary sound’ (Tim Ingold, 2000, p.275) suggests the inseparability of the two, with the real depicting the imaginary like a mental map. In this way we can presume that ‘the visual path to objective truth is paved with illusions’ (Tim Ingold, 2000 p.246), helping us to constantly re-evaluate and select the paths we will follow, and the agents we will accept in order to achieve our goals. This repetition restarts from a resting point and is a rhythmic correspondant between limited and free space of expression which can be represented variably. An imagined correlation is structured at the beginning as a main scheme to follow, while throughout the process we follow paths of its inner core, culminating in a re-evaluation of the whole structure. Nevertheless, comprehension and perception depend not on the visual and its appealing reality, but on the process of the visual leading to the ‘belonging’; to its embodiment [8].
This belonging (or embodiment) demands a physical, rhythmic re-evaluation of the environment, with every action and movement neglecting the former state of gravity and idle state of harmonisation. Choreographer Alexia Sarandopoulos in her masters thesis on Pina Bausch`s interpretation in Café Müller focuses on the space given for action and imaginary space, referring to Antonin Artaud`s words: ‘everything that acts is cruelty’[9]. Human movement, through repetition succeeds in expanding the limited space, defined by boundaries of physical objects, finding new paths of interpretation, freedom and rest. Within this form of composition imagined artifacts are perceived as possibilities for potentional action while physically present objects are vital reminders and offer themselves as memory-discs [10], the stability we need to achieve constant re-evaluation of space [11]. While we constantly erase and encounter our perception of reality via mental and physical activity, the propotion between free and limited space is balanced. Objects can offer a sense of stability and make the process easier, providing a defined area in which to reach our destination or move on. When we embody the limits of a structure and its rhythmic evaluation, we can move on further to an interaction organised by our capability of perception of that scheme, committed to our memory as open space and limitation.
The architectural term of ‘walkability’ defines the dynamic perception of constructed open public urban areas, constituing a statistic about the psychological and kinaesthetic process which citizents choose to follow (Ted Shelton, 2008), a process that manipulates and triggers behaviour.
Objective calculations and subjective reactions form a world suited for improvisation in which the agent (direction) and the goal (destination) provide a constant choreography of a strophic, alternate, complex system of probabilities, expectations and tendencies. Ingold’s approach to wayfinding and navigation process via maps [12] relates to Rubin’s declaration that:
‘perceptually salient aspects of the structure of the world are copied into an analogous structure in the mind’ (Rubin David, 1988, p.375) and in this way we are able to navigate or follow a path in an imaginative map-like form. Ingold insists this map-like metaphor is more applicable than a picture or image, because the map defines the simpliest representation of things in space (see Tim Ingold, 2000).
We can assume that this ‘maplike’ representation is analogous to the body image, triggered by the tools and artifacts each body uses and creates [13], and demands reflexive maintenance. All these parallel activities are rebalancing processes formed and constantly recaptured through rhythm. It is as if there is a city in every head, with the environment and stimuli triggering its inner architecture, comparing forms in an applicable visual environment to the physical world [14]. This form of composition is relevant in music.
4. Representation through Rhythm and Metaphors
It is also the rhythmic, periodical, structural form which proposes an open space for creative analysis. Αction is movement and presupposes the structure that is described above: a mental juxtaposition of the interior-exterior, predicting an image of a dynamic life in emotionally perceived time. In such a reflection lies the charm of many elements of surprise in the composition. Chimeric melodies, elisiones, quodlibets, oddball notes [15] and syncopations tend to reveal new dimensions to the mental structure, at the same time forming a paradoxical expectation: an event that is simultaneously expected and not expected.
Prediction represents an independent process of automatic action control, which comes from anticipation, and returns to formerly known structures which are well established. These paths form the patterns of mental space and time and can establish a sense of continuity and connection which accompanies comprehension, for attention is, by its very nature, selective. The dividing perceptual unification allows one to direct attention towards a single event and this entails less effort [16].
In the pre-attentive (idle) level we synchronise visual and auditive modalities. The parallel perceptions suggest that there is a reciprocal relationship between sonic and visual information that results in a unified precept. Sound can influence the processing of visual data with a reverse relationship of equal interest and ecological validity. Synchronisation means entertainment (Justin London, 2004).
Sound remains an imaginary pattern which even in its absence or in its recollection can give us characteristics we perceive as external, or can be recalled with the help of certain stimuli. All the same, composers, performers and listeners have differing schematic visualization needs and capabilities. In order to formulate sound into music we need the visual representation of the spatial. In other words a visually informed perception is required in order for sound to become music. Sound belongs to the general environment, but music refers to our capability of narrating the given signals to a logical form:
Musical meter is the anticipatory schema that is the result of our synchronisation, carrying inherent abilities of adaptation to periodic stimuli in our environment, while building time from space and space from time.
‘The world is filled with information that is perceived as rhythmic in nature, from familiar acoustic patterns such as lapping waves on the shore, of approaching footsteps to echological rhythms such as changes in light level and nutrient availability that occur because of tides, weather changes.Organisms synchronize their own biological rhythms to these and have a capacity to “tune in” to such echological rhythms. Their systematical responce provides evolutionary advantages. In the ethnomusical entrtainment literature (Martin Clayton et al. 2004), the ability of organisms to respond to ecological and environmental rhythms has been described as Asymmetrical Entrainment’(Jessica Phillips-Silver et al., 2010 p.6).
The ‘idle state’ initially triggers a space where transient emotions can be evoked in response to the environment. In such situations we detect and process different kinds of rhythm by selection until closure takes place: In music ending gestures are called cadences, a state which Narmour defines as the abscence of psychological expectations (Eugene Narmour, 1992). However, a tendency moment is the one within a meter that evokes a strong expectation of disposition, like a pickup, upbeat or anacrusis. Rhythm can be a byproduct of any number of adaptations but can also follow as a design feature of an adaptive system [17].
Paraphrasing Elyti’s words [18], action is our reaction against physically occurring cadences, via interaction between self and the environment.
Music can function as cordinator via communication strategies for the regulation of emotions rather than a raw emotional expression itself. Artistic processes including music allow us to use imagined changing schemes to expand, communicate and compare our dimensional capability of evolving. Attention is the first step towards immersion. Every physical descent eventually occurs when we compromise with the real world and its architecture and coordination processes by providing new elements through moving and reacting in our limited space of comprehension. To apply all of the above, we use rhythmic detection (sound) and rhythmic action (body) through the integration of input/ output information, in order to select all possible coordinations in the real and imaginative world (such as actions, choices, decisions etc).
Closure
In the above text we endeavored to present rhythm’s repetitive form of constant flow through its various representations as organised in musical meters. The process of composition like a map, is a constructed collections of parameters where composers, performers and listeners share parts of information which are never revealed, in other words information which is selective. This hidden information offers directional choices while describing sound, vision time and, more importantly, action. Abstract painting and its constant revelation of information provides us with an instructive map which helps us reach the balance between rest and active points for a further interpretation of the three dimensional world. This process is analogous with musical composition where we are led to a period of rest, afterwhich follows a span of activity thus forming a dual rhythmical structure.
The idle period is important for every kind of activity, since it is where all information regarding given space originates, and its timespan can be rhythmically expanded. The change from idle to active involves the element of surprise in the form of inspiration, a new composition of the old schemes. This cycle of events causes an interaction between the self and the external environment; a multi-dimensional space where rhythmic perception comes back to stimulate the idle state.
NOTES
[1] ‘The double meaning of the italian word tempo, which signifies both atmosphere and chronology, is a principle that presides over every construction; this is the double meaning of energy that I now see clearly in architecture, as well as in other techniques or arts’ Aldo Rossi, A Scientific Autobiography, Oppositions Books, Postscript by Scully, Translated by Lawrence Ventury 1981 p.1
[2] ‘The inner structure which balances rhythm forms a mental preconception of the habitual course of events, presented as schemata, between forms of habituation and dishabituation Habituation is the process of decreasing responsiveness to a recurring stimulus while dishabituation is the phenomenon whereby an organism regains its sensitivity to the same stimulus, the process after habituating to a repeated stimulus’. David Hurron, Sweet Anticipation: Music and the Psychology of Expectation, Glossary MIT PRESS (2006) p.415
[3] Zbig is a pioneer of High Definition television technology, and an innovator and experimenter in the technical field. He holds several US patents, most of them for innovative ideas in film and video making, including the "Zbig" software for matting. In 1983 he received an Academy Award for his short film Tango. Since 1985 he has owned a company for research, development and production of visual arts http://www.zbigvision.com/
[4] “Zbig“, Documentary by Natalia Koryncka-Gruz, Eureka Films (2001) 52min. and “Media:Zbigniew Rybczynski-A Collection (1987) Universal Studios 52 min.
[5] For more info on this topic see: Repp, B Comments on Rapid Motor Adaptations to Subliminal Frequency Shifts During Syncopated Rhythmic Sensorimotor Synchronisation, M. Thaut and G Kenyon, Human Movement Science 21, pp61-78, and Conclusion to John Bipshams : Rhythm in Music: What is it? Who as it? and why? Music Perception Volume 24, Issue 2, pp.125-134
[6] Paul Klee makes an interesting analysis of the visual thinking in his curriculum for the Bauhaus classes. See: Beiträge zur bildnerischen Formlehre. Faksimilierte Ausgabe des Originalmanuskripts von Paul Klees erstem Vortragszyklus am staatlichen Bauhaus Weimar 1921-2, ed. with an introduction and transcription by Jürgen Glaesemer, Schwabel (1979)
[7] ‘There are good reasons why people might tend to prefer poems that have a rhyme scheme and regular meter: these structures make sounds more predictable, and so easier to percieve and process. By combining a regular rhythm and a rhyme scheme, conventional poetry makes effective use of the brain`s tendency to reward itself for doing a good job of anticipating stimuli’. David Huron, Sweet Anticipation: Music and the Psychology of Expectation MIT PRESS (2006) p.197
[8] For more info on this topic see: Esther Lemi, Immersion, Interactivity and Artificial Life
http://swarms.cc/wiki/index.php/R%26A:_Immersion_Abstract
[9] ‘The utopic element as common characteristic in Pina Bausch`s choreography is expressed in the case of Café Müller via the personalities of the dancers and their movement selections, which destroy the order of “real” space. Two women, dressed in long white gowns and three men in suits move around between furniture, limited in space and movement. Due to this limitation of free space they are forced to move around in a spiral form, knocking against the furniture and destroying the order and producing chaos. Their movements are actions of unrest. This causes an aroused intensity, bringing to mind Antoin Artaud when he says: “Everything that acts is cruelty“. The empty chairs are symbols of absence and substitutes for human presence. They repersent loss, emptiness and contact failure’. Alexia Sarandopoulos, Return to the Outer: Reflecting Sleepwalking in Pina Bausch`s Cafe Müller, Masters Thesis, University of Athens, Department of Architecture 2009 p.12
[10] Dwight Read furthers the classification of artifacts due to the characteristics of their materials: ‘a part of material culture of a complex matter’. This complex matter investigates the social and cultural systems, as well as the production of the material objects from which artifacts are constituted, as organization of a dissimilar body of material analysing man`s creations. Tim Ingold considers the purpose of artifacts ‘is not to control but to reveal... concerning the difference between making things and growing things. There, I was concerned to show what it means to say that the herdman`s animals, or the farmer`s crops, are grown rather than made. I now take up the suggestion that artefacts, too, may be grown, and that in this sense they are not so very different from living organisms’.
Dwight W. Read, Artifact Classification, a conceptual and Methological Approach, First Publication in1943 (2007) Left Coast Press pp.19-20). Tim Ingold, The Perception of the Environment: Essays on Livelihood, Dwelling and Skill, Routhledge (2000) p.290
[11] ‘One of the dancers moves almost in panic. He is trying to figure out the way and movements of the others who look asleep and lost in thought, in order to open up paths for them to pass through. He aims for their safety as they could hurt themselves while sleepwalking hitting on the chairs on the scene. He seems to be constantly tense, worried about his timely reaction of removing the objects and keeping the path open for the rest of the dancers. Ηis role is that of protector, while his movements are defined by the movement of his fellow dancers. Role Borzik, the play`s scenographer was chosen for this role at the very first performance’. Alexia Sarandopoulos, Return to the Outer (2009) p.12
[12] ‘We know where we are, not because what we see around us matches to a certain mental image, but because this image has itself been uniquely derived from an underlying to our own movement. As we travel from one place to an other, we pass through a sequence of images, each of which is specific to- and in turn permits us to identify- a particular location along the way. But the map, from which all these images are generated, remains the same wherever we are’. Tim Ingold, The Perception of the Environment, in Dwelling: Maps,Wayfinding and Navigation (2000) pp.224
[13] C.Nussbaum emphasis in D.Spreber’s original: ‘Humans have a meta-representational, or interpertive, ability. That is, they can construct not only descriptions- that is representations of states and affairs- but also interpretations- that is, representations of representations. Now humans use this interpretive ability to represent meanings, intentions, beliefs, opinions, theories and soon, whether or not they share them. Spreber now seems to be willing to allow for representation of representation that is not interpretive, but this representation of representation is still not metarepresentation in the relevant sense’. Dan Sperber, Metarepresentations: A Multidisciplinary Perspective, Oxford University Press (2000); Charles O Nussbaum, The Musical Representation, Meaning, Ontology and Emotion, MIT Press (2007) p.16
[14] Based on Constantine Kavafi’s Poem ‚the City’ from: Poems by C.P. Cavafy, translated by John Mavrogordato, Chatto & Windus (1951)
Alan Baddeley, Michael W. Eysenck, Michael C. Anderson, MEMORY, Psychology Press (2009)
Cathrine J Stevens et al., Moving With and Without Music: Scaling and Lapsing in Time in the Performance of Contemporary Dance, Cathrine J Stevens et al. Music Perception Volume 26, Issue 5, pp.451-464 (2009)
Luiz Naveda and Marc Leman, The Spatiotemporal Representation of Dance and Music Gestures Using Topological Gesture Analysis (TGA) Luiz Naveda and Marc Leman Music Perception Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 93-111 (2010)
and Yi-Fu Tuan’s theory about Space and Place , University of Minessota Press (1977)
[15] Chimeric Melodies: A pitch sequence constructed by linking together two different melodies. A tune that begins with one melody, but then shifts to another.
Elisiones: overlap when the last note of musical phrase is also the first note of the ensuing phrase.
Quodibet: a musical work constructed primarily of quotations from other works
Oddball: note is a single tone that is experienced as «out of space».
David Huron, Sweet Anticipation: Music and the Psychology of Expectation MIT PRESS (2006) Glossary pp.411-8
[16] Robert B. Welch claimed that the basic idea of ‘unity assumption’ is that humans are motivated to maintain congruence in their perceptual world such that any physical discreparicies of reasonable magnitude are reduced in order to attain an integrated and unitary percept. Welch,R.B. (1999).
[17] In the introduction to the Origins of Music the editors state that most animals (including humans) have the ability to move in a metric alternating fashion: ‘what is special about humans is not their capacity to move rhythmically but their ability to entrain the movements to an external timekeeper, such as beating a drum’ edited by Nils L, Wallin, Björn Merker and Steven Brown, A Bradford Book MIT Press (2000) p.8
[18] ‘Leap faster than detriment’, Odyseas Elytis abstract from his poem Maria Nefeli (1978)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Clayton, Martin; Sager, Rebecca; Will, Udo: In Time with the Music: The Concept of Entrainment and its Significance for Ethnomusicology, ESEM CounterPoint Volume 1 (2004)
Huron, David: Sweet Anticipation: Music and the Psychology of Expectation MIT PRESS (2006)
Ingold, Tim: The Perception of the Environment: Essays on Livelihood, Dwelling and Skill, Routhledge (2000)
London, Justin: Hearing in Time, Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter, Introduction Oxford University Press (2004)
Narmour, Eugene: The Analysis and Cognition of Melodic Complexity: The Implication-Realisation Model. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (1992)
Packer, Rendal; Jordan, Ken (Editors): Multimedia: From Wagner to Virtual Reality, Norton & Company (2002)
Phillips-Silver,Jessica; Aktipis, C.Athena; Bryant, A. Gregory: The Ecology of Entrainment: Foundations of Coordinated Rhythmic Movement Music Perception Volume 28 Issue 1 (2010) pp3-14
Rubin, David: Go for the skill. In Remembering Reconsidered: Ecological and Traditional Approaches to the study of memory, eds U. Neisser and E. Winograd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, (1988) pp. 374-82
Shelton, Ted: Visualizing Sustainability in Urban Conditions, Eco Architecture II: Harmonisation between Architecture and Nature, ed. G. Broadbent and C.A. Brebbia, Southhampton, WIT Press (2008)
Thayler, E. Robert: The Biopsychology of Mood and Arousal, Oxford University Press (1989)
Welch, B.Robert: Meaning, Attention and the “Unity Assumption” in the Intersensory Bias of Spatial and Temporal Perceptions. In Cognitive Contributions to the perception of Spatial and Temporal Events, eds. G.Ascherlseben, T Bachmann and J Musseler (1999) pp.371-387